Vikings vs Romans: A hypothetical battle

Roman army vs the Vikings

If one were to take the Roman army at its height, it would decimate any early medieval army that would cross its path, according to a claim by Dan Carlin. To test his theory, let’s take a look at a hypothetical battle fought between the Vikings and the Romans.  

It is easy to see how Carlin would come to such a conclusion.  At the height of the Roman empire in 117 AD, the army boasted hundreds of thousands of soldiers, all professional, all equipped and supplied well at the expense of the state.

No such force existed in western European countries in the Viking age.  Armies were mostly levies with core body of professionals such as the Germanic huskarls or household guard.

One could argue that this lack of professionalism was mitigated by a warrior culture.  This is erroneous, however.  Classical Greek and early Roman societies had a warrior culture that prized courage in battle.  Every citizen was also considered a soldier and partook in periodic warfare during the summer months.  This system was replaced by standing armies, firstly by Sparta, in Greece, and by the Marian reforms in the late Roman republic. 

 

Imperial Roman Army

Standing armies which train continuously will consistently outperform their part time counterparts.  This is as true today as it was in the Ancient world.

However, one might say, the Vikings were the beneficiaries of hundreds of years of technological developments that the Romans would not have even seen or experienced in anything other than a very crude form.

One could talk at length about the stirrup and its stabilising effect on the rider.  This development could have heralded the superiority of horse archers and mounted knights. 

Viking enthusiasts almost certainly would raise the point about Ulfbehrt swords.  These swords were prized for the quality of steel involved in production and the fine method of forging.  These swords surely were superior to any type of steel that the Romans could have fielded. 

Viking sword

The enthusiasts would be right.  Ulfbehrt swords would almost certainly have been superior in quality to all but the finest gladii.  However, they were few.  Not all swords were Ulfbehrt, and indeed not all Ulfbehrt swords were Ulfbehrt.  Some were forgeries. 

Very few Viking infantry warriors would have wielded any kind of sword anyway.  They would have used the Dane axe or a spear and shield. 

Likewise, one could bring up the quality of armour.  Mail armour at this point may have advanced to something better than the mail of the past.  This point does not stand up to scrutiny.  Roman mail was of consistent quality and the case hardened segmentata would have fared even better at resisting blunt force trauma.  

Lorica Segmentata

Lorica Hamata

 Both would have been cushioned by the ‘sub-armalis’, which was similar to padded gambeson armour in terms of its protection.  Helmets were also universally worn by Roman soldiers and rarely worn by the Vikings.

It is also true that while all Roman soldiers had high quality mail and segmented armour, only the richest Vikings could have afforded mail armour.  Most Vikings had cruder padded armour or no armour at all.  Shields were common to most Vikings.

It is interesting to note that armies devolved in tactics at this point in history to something resembling the phalanx of classical Greece.  This was the shield wall used by the Saxons and many other forces besides.

To make a proper analysis, one must assess a great range of factors such as:

Battle type

One could choose one of several types of battles.  Raiding is discounted entirely from the list.  Why? Raids typically targeted isolated and vulnerable coastal settlements and monasteries.  They rarely attacked ‘hard targets’.  If the Vikings attacked a Roman settlement, it would be defended by soldiers, especially if it were starting as a Castra, or Roman fort.  They would have to come in sufficient strength for such an attack which would then lead to:

Siege - The Vikings besiege a Roman town or ‘Castra’

Alternatively, the Romans assault a Viking held town such as York.

Naval battle:

Unlike many Roman battles, there are few sizeable naval engagements of the medieval Norse.  There are some that are attested to in the sagas, but naval tactics and strategy are difficult to assess from the handful of sources. 

Land battle:

There is an abundance of land battles fought by both the Romans and the Norsemen.  Therefore, a field battle will be hypothesized.  For the sake of clear analysis, both sides can deploy to their usual standard. 

For the battle, proposed, it is more realistic that the Vikings take the initiative and go on the offensive.  Viking warfare was rarely static, and they generally did not fight at long range.  If the Romans were to advance within artillery range and the Vikings stayed on the defensive, the Romans could simply bombard them with impunity.  Furthermore, the battle must be a full engagement. 

Troop composition

Troop composition refers to the types of troops involved.  Different armies used differing proportions of troops.  Later medieval armies may have used a greater proportion of cavalry.  Late medieval English armies would have had a large proportion of longbowmen.

For the sake of fairness, we must assume that both armies are of equivalent size.  This would almost certainly not be the case if the Vikings and Romans fought.  Early medieval armies number thousands of men rather than the tens of thousands that Rome would typically have fielded.  If we are to assume a typically sized Roman era battle, then both sides may field thirty thousand soldiers.

Viking battles that took place in Britain would have been infantry centred.  They would have used cavalry sparingly and some missile troops too.  However, there is never any mention of artillery in any field engagement.

In a large battle like the one envisioned, Viking warriors would have advanced in formation, with their best troops in the front, in a wedge.  Wild, disorganised mobs of men surging forward are more a construction of Hollywood than of history. 

Roman battle formations would have also been infantry centred with dedicated formations of archers (or slingers) and cavalry on the flanks. 

In addition to this, there was artillery. This came in many forms.

Roman ballista

According to Roman military writer Vegetius, every legion would have had 65 scorpio.  

Onager

Troop disposition

Here, we are discussing morale.  How much combat or how many casualties can these forces take before breaking.  The Viking enthusiasts will say that the Norse believed that brave warriors fallen in battle would be raised to Valhalla.  The Romans had a long-standing culture of war from its very beginning.

Besides this, it is not possible to ignore aspects of discipline.  A levy army may be new to battlefield tactics, organised movements and cohesion of the lines.  Cowardice may have been punished after battle with death, but we are looking at how disciplined the army, as a whole, may have been. 

In the Roman army, a harsh set of punishments were constantly given to failing or cowardly soldiers.  The worst of these was decimation.  This punishment was rarely exercised after the Republican era but was recorded up until the late Roman era.  One in ten legionaries of a unit that fled in battle were clubbed to death by their comrades.  Other, more common punishments would have been flogging or bastinado. 

For the battle at hand, I will allow both armies to field troops of high morale. 

Commanding officers

A weakness of the Roman army through all eras was inconsistent leadership.  Command of a Roman army was typically given as a result of political affiliation rather than merit.  On the one hand, the Roman army could be blessed with brilliant leadership under generals like Scipio and on the other hand, could be cursed with incompetents like Varus, who lost many legions in the ill-planned battle at Teutoburg forest.

Common tactics of the period

Roman tactics:

The Roman army would rely on the cavalry to protect the flanks (or attack those of the enemy) and advance with the infantry and missile troops.  While the massed use of field artillery was the exception rather than the rule in ancient battles, they could use the small scorpio snipers to kill leaders, signallers, and other key personnel.  The use of field artillery should not be assumed unless it is mobile.  Gunpowder field artillery did not really take off until the limber and trunnions were invented in the late 15th century.  They were not practically mobile until this point.  There are a few instances of ancient artillery being used apart from sieges, but I will only assume that carroballistae (cart mounted scorpios) will be used in the following battle where large-scale movements by both armies are probable.  

When the enemy is within range of the archers, they would loose their arrows and kill horses (which were typically unarmoured), other missile troops, or lightly armoured infantry.  The infantry would close to within thirty meters and throw the lighter of their two pila.  When they are within half that distance, they would throw the heavier of the two.  These were essentially personal artillery that would break enemy formations prior to closing with their short sword, the gladius. 

Pilum

Roman gladius

The formations of the Roman army were complex.  They had formations for marching, for when they had a numerically inferior or superior force, whether they or the enemy had an abundance of troops of high or low morale.  The formations would depend on the terrain.  To prevent the blog taking forever, I will assume that both have troops of high morale and that the Roman army would deploy in its most typical formation.    

Viking tactics:

Viking tactics were much cruder.  The Norse army would use the boar’s head.  This would help to mitigate (though not eliminate) the shortcomings of poorly armoured troops.  They would use the elite core of the army at the front to challenge and defeat that of the enemy.  Archers would provide withering fire, while the main body of troops advanced.

Viking Boar's head formation

Battlefield terrain

For the analysis, we must use types of battlefields that were common to both Roman and Norse armies.  Conveniently, both sides fought in similar terrain in Britain. However, it would not be fair to assume a battlefield like Stamford bridge. The river would separate the armies and the bridge would serve as a chokepoint.  The Roman archers and artillery would bombard the Norse army from a distance and any Viking troops attempting to cross would be slaughtered by concentrated fire.  The large axeman described in the sources would be likely have been cut down by Scorpio bolts.  Interestingly, the battle of Stamford bridge serves as a useful example of how fierce but unarmoured troops stand up to an assault by similarly armed troops.  It was a resounding victory for the Saxons, who did not leave their armour behind for the sake of expediency.

The battle!

The two armies arrange opposite each other on roughly even ground.  The great heathen army has multiplied tenfold to thirty thousand Viking warriors.  Each has the finest warriors from each of their provinces and homelands.

Having harassed the settlements on the coast, the Viking force retreats to their longboats with plunder, only to find that the Emperor Trajan has deployed several legions to cut them off and destroy them.  An even larger force is on the Viking army’s tail.  The Norse have no choice.  They must breach Roman lines and reach their ships.  Doing otherwise will result in annihilation.

The Gallic cavalry is on the flanks of the Roman army.  Archers from Syria, chosen from tribes with a strong archery tradition are divided into three units, one on each flank, one in the middle, behind the ranks of legionaries.

The legion has arrayed itself in a tried and tested formation.  The Roman formation would use three main bodies of troops with the large 1^st cohort typically on the right.  A large reserve would remain in the rear to protect against any flanking action.

Roman formation (site: Romanmilitary.net)

There is artillery.  Three hundred scorpios sit on a hill, surrounded by a fringe of sudis (wooden spikes) with some mounted on carts, 60 per legion.  These are arranged in a long battery behind the checkerboard formations of cohorts and surrounded by a guard of legionaries.  The general, Marius II, sits astride a small Roman horse.

            Across the field of battle are the Norsemen.  Great warriors from the Scandinavian homeland.  The most experienced and professional line the front ranks.  The least experienced, poorest and youngest warriors form the ranks behind them.  The archers, though fewer in number than the Syrians are in a well-protected line in the back.

            The leader, Harald Hardrada, stands at the front, ready to encourage his men into battle.  The Jarls and their huskarls form the warriors in the centre.  A small token cavalry force sits at the rear.  They are only a few hundred in number, mostly scouts or those used in small raids. 

            The huskarls comprise around a tenth of the entire force. Among these are berserkers! 

Vendel Era berserker on the right

 Large champions of the jarls wearing coats of bearskins, the champions of Odin. The archers comprise around a twentieth.  The majority of the forces are levies from the coastal regions of Scandinavia.  They are less disciplined, but no less enthusiastic.

            Hardrada notices the large and well organised bulk of the Roman force.  He pauses, then raises a horn to his lips.  At this signal, the Viking horde forms into the boar’s head; a spearhead formation with the huskarls and berserkers at the head and centre.  He orders Bjorn, a giant, axe-wielding warrior to the very front of the wedge.

            Marius recognises the formation and orders the ranks of archers and batteries of artillery to ready themselves.  He relays orders to the main batteries of artillery to target the wedge, knowing that this presents the greatest threat to the Roman lines.  The most elite soldiers from the legions are deployed in the centre to take the brunt of the wedge. Carroballistae from the sides are wheeled into the middle position in preparation for the assault.

An artillery engineer calls out measurements to Marius. 

“Four stadia!”

Hardrada’s men are now moving at a trot to preserve their strength.  His archers nock their arrows in preparation, as do the Syrian archers in the Roman lines.

Marius then signals the cavalry on the flanks with a buccina.  The cavalry moves forward.  Hardrada notices the development and signals his horse unit to engage the Gauls on the left.  
There is not enough cavalry to engage those on the right.   He relies on the spear wielding majority to take care of them.

“Three stadia!” calls the engineer.

Marius waits.  The archers are not to target the wedge yet.  At this point many catapults face sideways to meet the wedge.

The Gallic cavalry moves into a trot. 

“Two stadia!” shouts the engineer. 

Marius holds up his hand.  Roman troops hold their breath. 

The leading wedge of the Viking force is now a mere three hundred and twenty meters away from the front ranks of the Roman army.

Marius drops his hand.

“Loose!” roars the artillery officer.  The buccina sounds.  The artillery fire at once.  Hundreds of scorpio bolts are shot toward the tightly packed wedge.  It is impossible for them to miss.  A few seconds later, chaos erupts in the boar’s head.  The bolts kill or maim hundreds of men, mail armour notwithstanding.  

Ballista bolt heads - Bolts could impale several men

 Hardrada realises that his army is in trouble.  If the best warriors fall along with the jarls that lead them, the levies behind them will have no mainstay to bolster them.

            The boars head slows drastically but still moves.  Hardrada looks in the ranks in dismay to realise that several jarls have fallen.  Some berserkers who are hit by scorpio bolts continue but slow as their strength wanes due to blood loss.  They finally drop and are stepped over by their comrades. 

            The volley nearly stopped the head.  The Gallic cavalry have nearly closed to both sides of the main Viking force.  The main Viking force has now moved within range of the archers.  The Viking archers attempt to get the first volley in.  They succeed. 

Thousands of arrows are loosed skyward towards the ranks of legionaries.  The Syrian archers fire. 

A buccina sounds.  The legionaries form a partial testudo. 

Roman testudo formation reenactment

 Their shields are raised over their heads and are quickly interlocked.  The few casualties against the legionaries happen in the form of legs or feet being struck.  After the testudo is formed, the main Roman force suffers virtually no injuries from the opposing force.  The Syrian archers, however, are struck repeatedly.  Their scale armour and helmets repel most of the arrows, but others still find their mark. 

            The Viking archers suffer much more.  Their lack of armour is a serious disadvantage against the Syrians.

            The Gallic cavalry clash with the two sides.  On Hardrada’s left, the Viking cavalry meet the Gauls.  Both sides have small horses and javelins with swords and shields.  Mail armour is used by the Gauls, but their horses are unprotected. 

            The cavalry cannot sustain the attack.  Spearmen rush towards the cavalry and throw javelins.  The cavalry throws their own javelins but are forced to retire.  They cannot afford to be caught by the spear wielding majority of the Viking force.  Their purpose is to harass.  Pursuit must wait. 

The two cavalry units retire to their respective flanks.  The Viking cavalry give chase but are driven back by archers on the Roman right flank.

By this stage, the artillery has shot three volleys into the main bulk of the boar’s head.  The head continues but is greatly slowed due to casualties.  Multiple men are impaled by ballista bolts and the force is tripping over the bodies of their dead friends.

Every volley kills more of the huskarls and the jarls leading them.  The main force to the rear and sides has also slowed.  If their lines become flush with the wedge, then the advantage of the formation will be lost. 

A fourth volley strikes the boar’s head.  More than half of the warriors in the wedge have been killed or incapacitated. 

            Marius shouts an order.  The archers in the centre behind the first cohort loose arrows.  The shower of missiles causes wounds amongst the ranks of huskarls, but they are well protected by a rawhide shield and mail armour.  The berserkers suffer severe losses.  The bear skin offers minimal protection against the hail of arrows.  Many fall in the formation.  Bjorn the berserker, struck by ten arrows, slumps to the ground.  The boar’s head is now down to a third of its original number but continues to advance. 

The artillery must now fire at the back of the boar’s head at the reserve to avoid striking the elite front ranks of legionaries due to the flat trajectory.

Javelin range

The boars head is now within thirty meters of the Roman first cohort lines.  The legions have reverted to their regular rank formation with one meter of fighting space per legionary.

Thousands of pila are drawn back. 
The legionaries throw!

The pilum is a remarkable weapon.  Weighing from two to five kilograms, it has a long mild steel shank that ends in a triangular point.  Once it sticks, it bends, and cannot be withdrawn.

Roman pila were designed to bend

  A shield struck by it is rendered useless.  Mail and cuirass will not repel it.  Each legionary carries two of these.  The lighter for long range and the heavier for short range.

The pila strike!

Once again, the huskarls come off better, but the javelins stick in their shields, which are duly discarded.  A second volley is thrown.  Mail and helmet are pierced alike.  The berserker force in the wedge is now virtually non-existent.  The huskarls have now suffered the most severe losses of their own.  Only a few hundred remain to continue the fight.

The huskarls charge!

The first cohort braces.  Soldiers on both sides are the elites of both armies.  Although the berserkers are gone, the huskarls are well armoured men trained in the art of combat since boyhood.

The men of the elite cohorts are taller and stronger than their counterparts near them.  They must exceed six Roman feet to be in this elite cohort. 

The clash!

Shield meets shield, sword meets sword, and the battle seems even.  Training since childhood gives the huskarls a slight advantage against the selected elite Roman troops, but strength in numbers is now in the Roman’s favour.  The boar’s head has now fought it’s way twenty meters into the Roman lines and the cohorts start to envelop the remaining men.  In the thick of the fighting, Hardrada falls.

The rear force strikes!

The main lines of the Viking force now close within thirty meters of the Roman lines.  The pila are raised and thrown.  Unlike the huskarls, whose good equipment provided a modicum of protection, the main force was only equipped with shields, linen and very rarely, helmets.

            Men in the main line fall by the thousands.  The Roman lines clash with the Vikings on both sides.
Unlike the huskarls, the main bulk of the force is ill-trained.  Fishermen, carpenters, blacksmiths are met by trained soldiers.

Line after line of Viking levies advance.  Line after line is cut down.
 The rout

A ripple spreads through the Viking ranks.  Hardrada has fallen!

The huskarls have fought and died almost to a man, but the main force of levies turn and flee.  The Gaulish cavalry who have waited patiently since the first engagement now turn towards the Viking lines and charge.  The few survivors are taken as captives to Rome to serve the empire in the great games.

Marius II is victorious.

Conclusion

A warlike culture notwithstanding, an army of poorly armed and armoured levies cannot match the disciplined assault of professional troops.  The gap of artillery strength cannot be ignored when assessing battlefield strength of armies.  The Romans placed a great emphasis on fire superiority. 

If the Vikings had a choice, they would have ambushed the Roman army while it was on the march when they were most vulnerable.  Most great victories of ‘barbarians’ against ancient Rome happened this way. 

Fighting the Roman army in open battle was, for the most part, suicide.

The aquila was the symbol of Roman glory

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